It is an activity connected with no material interest, and no profit can be gained by it. It proceeds within its own proper boundaries of time and space according to fixed rules and in an orderly manner. It promotes the formation of social groupings that tend to surround themselves with secrecy and to stress the difference from the common world by disguise or other means.

This definition of play as constituting a separate and independent sphere of human activity is sometimes referred to as the "magic circle" notion of play, a phrase also attributed to Huizinga. Jean Piaget stated, "the many theories of play expounded in the past are clear proof that the phenomenon is difficult to understand.

There are multiple aspects of play people home in on when defining it. One definition from Susanna Millar's The Psychology of Play [ verification needed ] defines play as: "any purposeful mental or physical activity performed either individually or group-wise in leisure time or at work for enjoyment, relaxation, and satisfaction of real-time or long term needs.

Other definitions may focus on play as an activity that must follow certain characteristics including willingness to engage, uncertainty of the outcome, and productivity of the activity to society.

Another definition of play from the twenty-first century comes from the National Playing Fields Association. The definition reads as follows: "play is freely chosen, personally directed, intrinsically motivated behaviour that actively engages the child.

Play can take the form of improvisation, pretense, interaction, performance, mimicry, games, sports, and thrill-seeking including extreme or dangerous sports like sky-diving, high-speed racing, etc. Philosopher Roger Caillois wrote about play in his book Man, Play and Games.

Free-form play gives children the freedom to decide what they want to play and how it will be played. Both the activity and the rules are subject to change in this form, and children can make any changes to the rules or objectives of the play at any time. Structured play has clearly defined goals and rules.

Such play is called a " game ". Other play is unstructured or open-ended. Both types of play promote adaptive behaviors and mental states of happiness.

Sports with defined rules take place within designated play spaces, such as sports fields—in association football for example, players kick a ball in a certain direction and push opponents out of their way as they do so. While appropriate within the sport's play space, these same behaviors might be inappropriate or even illegal outside the playing field.

Other designed play spaces can be playgrounds with dedicated equipment and structures to promote active and social play. Some play spaces go even farther in specialization to bring the play indoors, and charge admission, as seen at Children's Museums , Science Centers , or Family Entertainment Centers.

Family Entertainment Centers or Play Zones are typically for-profit businesses that facilitate play and entertainment, while Children's Museums and Science Centers are typically non-profit organisations for educational entertainment.

The California-based National Institute for Play describes seven play patterns: [8]. Another classification system uses these categories: [9]. Some forms overlap, such as a relay race cooperative and competitive or building a blanket fort construction and creative.

Separate from self-initiated play, play therapy is used as a clinical application of play aimed at treating children who suffer from trauma, emotional issues and other problems. In young children, play is associated with cognitive development and socialization.

Play that promotes learning and recreation often incorporates toys , props , tools , or other playmates. Play can consist of an amusing, pretend, or imaginary activity alone or with another. Some forms of play are rehearsals or trials for later life events, such as "play fighting", pretend social encounters such as parties with dolls , or flirting.

As children get older, they engage in board games, video games, and computer play, and in this context the word gameplay is used to describe the concept and theory of play and its relationship to rules and game design. In their book, Rules of Play , researchers Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman outline 18 schemas for games, using them to define "play", "interaction", and "design" formally for behaviorists.

Play is explicitly recognized in Article 31 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations , November 29, , which declares:. American historian Howard Chudacoff studied the interplay between parental control of toys and games and children's drive for freedom to play.

In the colonial era, toys were makeshift and children taught each other very simple games with little adult supervision. The market economy of the 19th century enabled the modern concept of childhood as a distinct, happy life stage. Organized sports filtered down from adults and colleges, and boys learned to play with a bat, a ball, and an impromptu playing field.

With the rise of motor vehicle traffic in the 20th century, teenagers were increasingly organized into club sports supervised and coached by adults, with swimming taught at summer camps and through supervised playgrounds. Under the American New Deal 's Works Progress Administration , thousands of local playgrounds and ball fields opened, promoting softball especially as a sport for all ages and genders.

The act of play time is a cross-cultural phenomenon that is universally accepted and encouraged by most communities; however, it can differ in the ways that is performed. Some cultures, such as Euro-American ones, encourage play time in order to stress cognitive benefits and the importance of learning how to care for one's self.

Other cultures, such as people of African American or Asian American heritages, stress more group oriented learning and play where kids can learn what they can do with and for others.

Parent interactions at playtime also differ within communities. Parents in the Mayan culture interact with their children in a playful mindset while parents in the United States tend to set aside time to play and teach their children through games and activities. In the Mayan community, children are supported in their playing but also encouraged to play while watching their parents do household work in order to become familiar with how to follow in their footsteps.

All around the world, children use natural materials like stones, water, sand, leaves, fruits, sticks, and a variety of resources to play. In addition, there are groups that have access to crafts, industrialized toys, electronics, and video-games.

In Australia, games and sports are part of play. There, play can be considered as preparation for life and self-expression, like in many other countries. These activities are similar to other forms of play worldwide. For instance, children can be seen comforting their toy dolls or animals, anything that they have modeled from adults in their communities.

In Brazil, children can be found playing with balls, kites, marbles, pretend houses, or mud kitchens, like in many other countries. In smaller communities they use mud balls, little stones or cashews to replace marbles.

At an indigenous community of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in Colombia, children's play is highly valued and encouraged by leaders and parents. They interact with the children of different ages and explore together different environments to let the children express themselves as part of the group.

Some children in the Sahara use clay figures as their forms of playful toys. Toys in general are a representation of cultural practices. They usually illustrate characters and objects of a community.

Play time can be a way for children to learn the different ways of their culture. Many communities use play to emulate work. The way in which children mimic work through their play can differ according to the opportunities they have access to, but it is something that tends to be promoted by adults.

Sport activities are one of the most universal forms of play. Sports can be played as a leisure activity or within a competition. According to sociologist Norbert Elias it [ ambiguous ] is an important part of "civilization process".

Youth sport can provide a positive outcome for youth development. Research shows adolescents are more motivated and engaged in sports than any other activity, [26] and these conditions predict a richer personal and interpersonal development. Dramatic play is common in younger children.

By participating regularly in a variety of sports, children can develop and become more proficient at various skills such as jumping , kicking , running , throwing , etc. if they focus on skill mastery and development. Regular participation in sport and physical activity is associated with a lower risk of diabetes , heart disease , obesity , and other related diseases.

According to research by the Australian Early Childhood Mental Health Initiative, children can be assisted in dealing with and managing stress by developing their sense of optimism when playing sports.

Although adults who engage in high amounts of play may find themselves described as "childish" or "young at heart" by less playful adults, play is an important activity, regardless of age.

Creativity and happiness can result from adult play, where the objective can be more than fun alone, as in adult expression of the arts, or curiosity-driven science.

In creative professions, such as design, playfulness can dispel more serious attitudes such as shame or embarrassment that impede brainstorming or artistic experimentation in design.

Imaginative play and role play may allow adults to practice useful habits such as learned optimism , which is helpful in managing fear or terrors. Play also offers adults the opportunity to practice concepts that may not have been explicitly or formally taught e.

how to manage misinformation or deceit. Thus, even though play is just one of many tools used by effective adults, it remains a necessary one.

There has been extensive research on the benefits of play among children , youth , and adolescence. Overlooked are the benefits of play for adults—more specifically, adults who spend a lot of time in the workplace.

Many adults in North America are in the workforce and spend half of their waking hours in a workplace environment with little to no time for play.

Leisure activities might include physical sport activities, card games , board games , video games , foosball , ping-pong , yoga , and boot-camp sessions.

Playing games may promote a persistent and optimistic motivational style and positive affect. While people are engaged in work, positive affect increases the satisfaction they feel from the work, and this increases their creativity and improves their performance on problem-solving tasks as well as other tasks.

Work and play are mutually supportive. Employees need to experience the sense of newness, flow , discovery , and liveliness that play provides.

This provides the employee with the sense that they are integrated within the organization, and therefore they feel and perform better. Incorporating play at work results in more productivity , creativity and innovation, higher job satisfaction, greater workplace morale , stronger or new social bonds, improved job performance, and a decrease in staff turnover, absenteeism , [41] and stress.

Decreased stress leads to less illness, which results in lower health care costs. Companies that encourage play at work, whether short breaks throughout the day or during lunch breaks, are more successful because this leads to positive emotion among employees. Risk taking, confidence in presenting novel ideas, and embracing unusual and fresh perspectives are associated with play at work.

Play can increase self-reported job satisfaction and well-being. Employees experiencing positive emotions are more cooperative, more social, and perform better when faced with complex tasks.

Contests, team-building exercises, fitness programs, mental health breaks, and other social activities make the work environment fun, interactive, and rewarding. playful fights or fictive disputes, may contribute to organizations and institutions, as in youth care settings.

Staff tries to down-key playfight invitations to "treatment" or "learning," but playfighting also offers youth and staff identificatory respite from the institutional regime. Older adults represent one of the fastest growing populations around the world.

Similar to the data surrounding children and adults, play and activity are associated with improved health and quality of life among seniors. These outlets can lower the risk of developing particular diseases, reduce feelings of social isolation and stress, and promote creativity and the maintenance of cognitive skills.

The ability to incorporate play into one's routine is important because these activities allow participants to express creativity, [50] improve verbal and non-verbal intelligence, [54] and enhance balance. Play and activity tend to decline with age [48] which may result in negative outcomes such as social isolation, depression, and mobility issues.

For example, those who play may be more susceptible to injury. A moderate level of play has numerous positive outcomes in the lives of senior citizens. Evolutionary psychologists believe that there must be an important benefit of play, as there are so many other reasons to avoid it. Animals are often injured during play, become distracted from predators, and expend valuable energy.

In rare cases, play has even been observed between different species that are natural enemies such as a polar bear and a dog. Animals on the lower strata, e.

stressed and starving animals, generally do not play. The social cognitive complexity of numerous species, including dogs, have been explored in experimental studies. In one such study, conducted by Alexandra Horowitz of the University of California, the communication and attention-getting skills of dogs were investigated.

When one of the two dogs was facing away or otherwise preoccupied, attention-getting behaviors and signals nudging, barking, growling, pawing, jumping, etc. Stronger or more frequent signaling was used if the attention of the other dog was not captured.

These observations tell us that these dogs know how play behavior and signaling can be used to capture attention, communicate intent and desire, and manipulate one another. This characteristic and skill, called the "attention-getting skill" has generally only been seen in humans, but is now being researched and seen in many different species.

Observing play behavior in various species can tell much about the player's environment including the welfare of the animal , personal needs, social rank if any , immediate relationships, and eligibility for mating.

Play activity, often observed through action and signals, serves as a tool for communication and expression. Through mimicry, chasing, biting, and touching, animals act out in ways that send messages to one another; whether it's an alert, initiation of play, or expressing intent.

When play behavior was observed for a study in Tonkean macaques , it was discovered that play signals weren't always used to initiate play; rather, these signals were viewed primarily as methods of communication sharing information and attention-getting.

One theory—"play as preparation"—was inspired by the observation that play often mimics adult themes of survival. Predators such as lions and bears play by chasing, pouncing, pawing, wrestling, and biting, as they learn to stalk and kill prey.

Prey animals such as deer and zebras play by running and leaping as they acquire speed and agility. Hoofed mammals also practice kicking their hind legs to learn to ward off attacks.

Indeed, time spent in physical play accelerates motor skill acquisition in wild Assamese macaques. In social animals, playing might also help to establish dominance rankings among the young to avoid conflicts as adults.

John Byers, a zoologist at the University of Idaho , discovered that the amount of time spent at play for many mammals e. rats and cats peaks around puberty, and then drops off. This corresponds to the development of the cerebellum , suggesting that play is not so much about practicing exact behaviors, as much as building general connections in the brain.

Sergio Pellis and colleagues at the University of Lethbridge in Alberta, Canada, discovered that play may shape the brain in other ways, too. Young mammals have an overabundance of brain cells in their cerebrum the outer areas of the brain—part of what distinguishes mammals.

There is evidence that play helps the brain clean up this excess of cells, resulting in a more efficient cerebrum at maturity. Marc Bekoff a University of Colorado evolutionary biologist proposes a "flexibility" hypothesis that attempts to incorporate these neurological findings.

It argues that play helps animals learn to switch and improvise all behaviors more effectively, to be prepared for the unexpected. There may, however, be other ways to acquire even these benefits of play the concept of equifinality.

The social benefits of play for many animals, for example, could instead be garnered by grooming. Patrick Bateson maintains that equifinality is exactly what play teaches. In accordance with the flexibility hypothesis, play may teach animals to avoid "false endpoints". In other words, they harness the childlike tendency to keep playing with something that works "well enough", eventually allowing them to come up with something that might work better, if only in some situations.

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